Russian-Cyril and Medius Encyclopedia-Article Medieval (-century) Russian history-the history of Russian graphics, spelling and punctuation-the history of Russian compilation-the formation of a new Russian literary language-the changes in Russian phonetics, grammar and vocabulary system 3.
In terms of its sound components, Russian belongs to the consonant type. This means that the number of consonants or abstract phonetic units (phonemes) greatly exceeds the number of vowels. The number of vowel phonemes in Russian is determined by the accent position. In this position, the four vowels are obviously relative to each other-[], [], [], []. As for the voices [and] and [], their status is controversial. Many researchers, especially representatives of the Moscow Phonetic School, believe that these sounds are combined into one phoneme. This conclusion is based on the fact that [and] are always pronounced after soft consonants, and []-pronounced after hard consonants, that is, they do not appear in the same position. In addition, these sounds can be interchanged within a morpheme, that is, alternate. So finally. Plural form. According to the type of the front consonants, the first decimal multiple words are pronounced [and] or []-bridge, bush, dream, but there are lights, kings, days. Therefore, in Russian, five vowel phonemes -, and are distinguished. Since [and] is pronounced in a separate position-the beginning of a word (compared and stressed, but very short), the sound is considered to be the main variant of the corresponding phoneme. There is another point of view-it is put forward in the work of the representative of Leningrad (St. Petersburg) Phonetic School. One of the main criteria here is the acoustic similarity of sounds combined into one phoneme. And the psychological cognition of native speakers. The speaker regards the sound as a separate sound, therefore, within the framework of the theory, a special phoneme will be distinguished. There are more consonant phonemes in Russian-from 33 to 38 according to various estimates. There are 38 independent consonants in the position before the vowels, but the independence of some of them raises questions. In particular, this applies to sounds ['], ['], [']. They are in contrast with the corresponding solid consonants in a limited number of words (in most cases, this is a borrowed word): (Compare with);, (), (), etc. In addition, they are not indicated at the end of the word. The [’] sound in modern languages ​​is gradually no longer used, replaced by a solid combination []-. The common pronunciation [] (drive), [''] (scream). Therefore, it may not stand out as a separate phoneme. The same is true for the sound [шш'], some researchers think it is a representative of a combination of two phonemes-for example, the midrange or (compare the pronunciation of these two words with and). Finally, in Russian, two other special consonants are mentioned, but their use is optional. First of all, it is a friction word [γ]: it can be pronounced in an interjection instead of [г] Aha, wow, my God; there is also the word "accountant". Second, the hiss of ['] and [] were found in the borrowed words between Julian and the jury. The distinctive feature of the Russian phonetic system is that and in the absence of pressure. Therefore, instead of the phoneme after the solid consonant, it is pronounced as [] type sounds: [] (dew), [] net sound (end), [] (water). A rare unemphasized [] pronunciation is observed in borrowed words: [], Kaka [], stands for []. Instead of the phoneme after the soft consonant, the sound [and] sounds regularly: [and] grater (five), [and] juice (wood), [and] soft (honey). In the speech realization rules of consonant phonemes, it is necessary to pay special attention to the various assimilation of each other's sounds-especially in the case of [] (legs), [] growth (decrease), [] (family) types of shock and vocal . ...In addition, the consonants at the end of the word are also shocking: [] (knife), [] (circle), [] (lion), ['] (blood).
Study the variable pronunciation of words and provide suggestions on choosing one or the other. The change of language occurs gradually, so there is coexistence and regulation. Innovations in modern Russian phonetics include spreading the sound after hissing in [], [], etc. []; at the same time, in many words, the pronunciation of [] is still standard: [], [], [] Wait. In addition, in some regulations, the softening of consonants has been eliminated, cf. New option [''] ['] instead of the old ['’] [' ’]. It is especially difficult to emphasize with many words and forms. The reason is the diversity and flexibility of the Russian language. There are some accent transfer processes in grammatical form, and some situations have become the norm, see. , Giving, instead of the previous variants, Giving, while others remain outside the norm, see. The only valid option is call. The recommended pronunciation is recorded in a special orthodox dictionary. This is slightly less than the number of phonemes, but the difference is not obvious. Therefore, the Russian graphics system is considered a fairly reasonable organization. The basic principle of Russian graphics is called syllable: the unit of writing and reading is not letters, but syllables or letter combinations. For example, this is reflected in the designation of consonant softness: there are no separate symbols in the letters. The special letters after the consonants indicate softness. These are several vowels and the ь symbol, see. Example: do it in, ice. In Russian, there are some spellings that violate the basic graphic style:-the letter at the end (pronounced [] in its place); the combination of, (instead of, ): front hall, iodine, broth; [] and [] After hardship: lying, ink, you know, eating; once these voices become soft; after borrowing hard consonants: parachute, booklet, Zurich; and according to the pronunciation [], []: Of course it is. Russian spelling is based on the so-called phoneme principle. This means that writing reflects the phoneme composition of words and does not consider the characteristics of positional alternation. By using this principle, the uniform spelling of words and parts can be maintained. For example, in a stunning location, letters with phonetic consonants will be written: oak (cf. oak), rye (cf. rye). Sometimes other principles are applied-voice and traditional principles. Therefore, when the prefix is ​​written in -з, it will reflect the amazingness of consonants: choice-flower, incompetent-useless, too much-too big; for rose, it also reflects the alternation of vowels: distribution-distribution. Traditional spelling can distinguish between grammatical categories, which neither corresponds to the pronunciation of a word nor includes its phonetic composition. This is reflected in the design of words ending in hissing consonants. Rye, lies, ink and knives, marching, body. In this case, the symbol indicates that it belongs to the female gender and the third conjugation. Russian vocabulary forms a complex system based on various types of relations between words-synonymous, antonymous, same name, synonymous. Homophones should be distinguished from polysemous words: in the latter case, there are some commonalities in the meaning, see. Starting the engine and starting the dog, the general semantic component is: optical focus and card focus have no common semantic component. Aliases are words that sound similar but have different meanings: dress your son/coat; ignorance/ignorance. Their external similarity may cause speech errors. According to their origin, all Russian words are divided into original words and borrowed words. In lending, there is a special group composed of church slavery, which may have the following signs: a combination of, instead of the Russians: country, page-side, enemy-witch, dust-gunpowder, goalkeeper-door , Betrayal-Pass, Intermediate-Intermediate, Baby-Young, Milky Way-Galaxy; the original and the replacement for Russia,: work, slave-grain grower, equal-uniform, ship-ship; voice under pressure [] replaced Russian [']: The sky is the taste bud, the cross is the godfather, hope is reliable; and not in Russian: help, food, lighting (see candles), caves (see the name of the river); needs (see necessary), clothes , Citizen (see citizen). This group also includes valid present participles with:, etc. In the original Russian fluid form, status is converted into adjectives. These participles are almost never used in spoken language. Since the middle of the 21st century, there are many other languages ​​such as Greek (boat, lantern), Latin (student, republic), German (camp, fireworks), French (terrace, quarry), Turkic (horse, pencil), etc. use. Russian has penetrated more and more English words. They are usually used to denote new objects and phenomena (computers, printers, websites, diving), but they also replace previously existing words: (hobby),. Hobbies; show, cf. representation.
Vocabulary also differs in frequency of use. Over time, words can shift from active vocabulary to passive vocabulary. In particular, this applies to historicism and antiquity. When certain realities no longer exist in social life, such as beekeepers, moldy, these words become historicism. Archaism is the result of replacing words with synonyms: thinking-thinking, Lanita-cheek. Neologisms, that is, words that native speakers find novel, usually also refer to passive vocabulary. The emergence of a large number of new words and new meanings of words is usually related to a turning point in the history of the country. Therefore, in the early days of the Soviet era, the Russian vocabulary has changed dramatically-the new words of that period were house management, loudspeaker, fraud. Special meanings have been developed for words such as interlayer, processing, sharpening, and bending. Since then, many abbreviations have appeared. The wealth of the Russian Dictionary Fund is reflected in various dictionaries and information systems. For example, it includes approximately 140,000 words; the new one will include more than 160,000 vocabulary units. Currently contains more than 500 million tokens. Russian belongs to the Slavic family of the Indo-European language family and can be genetically traced back to the original Slavic Eastern dialects. In the primitive Slavic communities, the ancient Russian (the ancestor of modern Russian, Belarusian and Ukrainian) came to the fore in the second half of the first millennium AD. For example, during the migration and formation period of the first Slavic countries. The language characteristics of the literati era can be judged based on the comparison between modern Slavic languages ​​and dialects, as well as the comparison of the dialects of East Slavic dialects from neighboring countries in ancient times. For example, Estonian (see Russia, fishing rod), Finland (Russian judge) pointed out that in the early days of Russian development, nasal vowels existed. By the middle of the 11th century, nasal vowels disappeared completely. Finnish (window), (spoon) means the approximate sound of a special weakened sound, and then the letters ь and ъ-ancient Russian windows are used. They also did not survive in Russian, lost or appeared simultaneously with other vowel sounds. The traces of their previous existence remain in the alternation of window types.

Church Slavic is used in the liturgical field and other cultural fields. As for the existing ancient Russian, it was used in daily life, initially mainly spoken. However, written texts are gradually being created. Due to the coexistence of two different (albeit similar) languages, a special situation arises called "". Should be distinguished from bilingualism. In the case of bilingualism, languages ​​are equal and perform the same function. No book language is used in daily communication, and oral language is not used in cultural fields. According to ., this is the case. Uspensky was characteristic of ancient Russia until the 19th century. Then it gave way to a relatively short bilingual period. Kearny grangetown paviours At this time, words of daily life appeared in the Slavic church, especially personal diaries and letters. In turn, Russian began to be used in church literature. Finally, a Slavic-Russian dictionary is being created, which means that these languages ​​have been treated as two separate idioms. In the course of the 19th century, pre-literary language gradually faded to the periphery. As a result, a new type of Russian literary language was formed, focusing to a certain extent on spoken language. It is based on the Moscow dialect. As for the church Slavic language, it has only been used in religious publications since then. It should be noted that there are other views on the language situation of Ancient Russ. E.g, . Shakhmatov believes that Slavnik Church is also the language of daily oral communication. According to., There are two types of literary languages-based on Yugoslavian and Russian, which are used in written texts of different genres. The formation characteristics of the new Russian literary language explained the existence of a large number of church Slavic loans.
The most important source of the history of medieval language phenomena is the various manuscript monuments. They are divided into two groups-depending on the language in which they were created. Church Slavic is used for religious content, historical and natural science writings, and the text of the story is translated from Greek and the original; Russian-used for business (legal) documents and personal letters. Some genres, especially the chronicles, are characterized by so-called mixed languages, namely Slavic languages ​​with oral elements. The oldest handwritten books on the Slavnik Church are (late eleventh-eleventh century) and (years). Among the existing monuments of ancient Russian, special attention should be paid to the Novgorod birch bark letters, which reflect many important phonetic features. The oldest of these dates back to the eleventh century. From the 15th century, parchment, birch bark and paper have been used as writing materials. During the eleventh to seventeenth centuries, the development of handwriting changed, and handwriting was used when writing ancient Russian texts. The early monuments contained the charter-solemn handwriting, whose features included careful writing of letters, the strict geometric nature of their appearance, and a small number of word abbreviations. In the 17th century, half stood out, retaining many of its functions and gradually replacing it. In this type of writing, the letters are small and usually slanted, with many abbreviations. On this basis, the first Russian printed fonts were developed in the 17th century. Since the 17th century, another handwriting has become popular-cursive. It is mainly used in commercial documents, and is characterized by frequent occurrence of out-of-line letter elements, and a large number of consecutive (continuous) spellings and abbreviations. Moscow cursive script has become one of the samples of folk genres in the 19th century and began to be used in secular publications (national documents, periodicals, science, technology, and novels).
The most important period in the history of the formation of new literary language was the second half of the 20th century and the first half of the 20th century. By the middle of the 20th century, there were already a large number of Slavic church elements in the Russian literary language, and these elements had become antiquity. The advantages of its classification and selection belong to Lomonosov. In his theory, he excluded outdated Church Slavism (Vogda, etc.) from the literary language, and at the same time introduced words from popular speeches.

The spoken language of the nobles at that time served as an example. Thanks to Karamzin, a large number of new words appear in Russian, often representing French descriptions: touching, entertaining, complex, industrial, prudential, moral, etc. Finally, in the first half of the 20th century, Pushkin in the United States changed the language of literature and determined the path for the further development of Russian literature. The language used in his works is an organic fusion of the Slavic cultural heritage of the church, spoken language and foreign language lending. Common language elements and dialectics are becoming one of the sources of updated literary language.
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